Efectos antirresortivos y antimicrobianos de los antiinflamatorios no esteroideos en lesiones periapicales / Antiresorptive and antimicrobial effects of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in periapical lesion

Los antiinflamatorios no esteroideos (AINE) son un grupo de fármacos que han sido comúnmente prescritos por sus propiedades antiinflamato- rias, antipiréticas y analgésicas, mismas que se deben a la inhibición de la formación de prostaglandinas. Este mecanismo ha sido ampliamente respaldado en la literatura; sin embargo, en la actualidad poco se co- noce sobre las propiedades adicionales de estos medicamentos como el efecto antirresortivo y antimicrobiano. La función antirresortiva se debe principalmente al bloqueo de la producción de prostaglandinas en específico la PGE2, que posee gran potencial osteoclastogénico, esencial para la aparición de lesiones periapicales; asimismo, la acción antimicrobiana de los AINE está relacionada con la afectación directa de la perpetuación de biopelícula, potencian la acción de los antibióticos, entre otros. Dichos efectos combinados podrían contribuir en la cura- ción de lesiones periapicales. El objetivo de este estudio es recopilar información actualizada sobre estas funciones agregadas de los AINE, con el fin de dar a conocer a los profesionales estos beneficios en la terapéutica de las lesiones periapicales (AU)

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAIDs) are a group of drugs that have been commonly prescribed for their anti-inflammatory, antipyretic and analgesic properties, which are due to the inhibition of prostaglandin formation. This mechanism has been widely supported in the literature; however, currently little is known about the additional properties of these drugs such as the antiresorptive and antimicrobial effect. The antiresorptive function is mainly due to the blockage of prostaglandin production, specifically PGE2, which has great osteoclastogenic potential, and is essential for the appearance of periapical lesions; likewise, the antimicrobial action of NSAIDs is related to the fact that they directly affect the perpetuation of biofilms, enhance the action of antibiotics, among others. These combined effects could contribute to the healing of periapical lesions. The aim of this study is to gather updated information on these added functions of NSAIDs, in order to inform professionals about these benefits in the therapy of periapical lesion (AU)

Pharmacological Management of Acute Endodontic Pain.

Pain associated with infections of the tooth pulp and periapical tissues is intense and often the most common reason for patients seeking emergency dental care. Effective management of acute dental pain requires a deep understanding of pain mechanisms, which enables accurate diagnosis and definitive treatment. While drugs are only used as an adjunct to definitive dental treatment, a thorough understanding of their mechanism of action and effectiveness enables clinicians to effectively control intra-operative and post-operative pain and prevent persistent pain. This review describes how pain is detected, processed, and perceived. It also provides information on evidence-based strategies on the use of different classes of drugs to effectively manage endodontic pain.

Guía de práctica clínica para el manejo de lesiones pulpares y periapicales en dentición permanente: guía en versión extensa / Clinical practice guideline for the management of Pulpal and Periapical Lesions in Permanent Dentition - guide in extended version

Para el ámbito de esta GPC, consideramos preguntas sobre el tratamiento las principales lesiones pulpares y periapicales como pulpitis irreversible, necrosis pulpar, periodontitis apical y absceso apical agudo.

Tratamiento no quirúrgico de lesión periapical de gran tamaño: Reporte de caso / Non-surgical Therapeutics of large size periapical injury: Clinical case report

Resumen Se describe un caso clínico sobre una mujer de 21 años de edad la cual sufrió trauma dental a los 6 años que comprometió al incisivo superior izquierdo lo cual con el tiempo generó o se formó una gran lesión periapical en esta región. Radiográficamente se observa la formación incompleta de la raíz, las paredes del conducto radicular delgadas, y una extensa lesión periapical. Se realizó el desbridamiento químico-mecánico con limas K y se ejecutó la desinfección del conducto radicular con clorhexidina al 2%. El conducto se deja medicado con hidróxido de calcio (Vitapex®), el cual se reemplaza periódicamente con dicho material hasta los nueve meses, finalmente se obtura con Biodentine®. Se da seguimiento al caso a través de cuatro años, pasando por blanqueamiento interno, carilla de resina hasta llegar a poste intra radicular con corona completa de porcelana en lo concerniente al aspecto estético. En cuanto a la lesión periapical de gran tamaño, se llega a observar por medio de tomografías, disminución de la lesión al mínimo y genera cicatrización ósea. En relación con la observación clínica hay desaparición de la fístula y ausencia de sintomatología.

Abstract This report describes a clinical case involving a 21-year-old woman, who suffered dental trauma at age 6, compromising left tooth 2.1. On time she developed a large periapical injury in this area. Radiographically, incomplete root formation, thin walls of the root canal, and extensive periapical damage is clearly shown. Chemo- mechanical debridement was performed with K files and disinfection of the root canal using 2% chlorhexidine. The root canal was left medicated with calcium hydroxide (Metapex), which was replaced periodically until 9 months. Finally, the root canal was completely sealed with Biodentine. The case had a follow up for over four years and concerning esthetical aspects, through this period of time an internal whitening, resin veneer, intra radicular post and complete crown were provided. Regarding the considerable periapical injury, tomography shows that it has been drastically reduced and generated bone healing. Clinical observations also show that the fistula and symptomatology disappeared.

Effect of Calcium Hydroxide Alone or in Combination with Ibuprofen and Ciprofloxacin on Nuclear Factor Kappa B Ligand and Osteoprotegerin Level in Periapical Lesions: A Randomized Controlled Clinical Study.

INTRODUCTION: The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of calcium hydroxide (Ca[OH]2), Ca(OH)2 + ibuprofen, and Ca(OH)2 + ciprofloxacin in terms of receptor activator of nuclear factor kappa B ligand (RANKL) and osteoprotegerin (OPG) levels in asymptomatic periapical lesions. METHODS: Sixty-six patients were randomly divided into 3 groups using a Web program according to the medication selected: Ca(OH)2, Ca(OH)2 + ibuprofen, and Ca(OH)2 + ciprofloxacin. After removing gutta-percha from the root canals, the RANKL and OPG samples were taken from the interstitial fluid of the apical tissues using 3 paper points. At the second appointment, medicaments were removed, and second sampling was performed using the same method. The RANKL and OPG levels were measured by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, and the RANKL/OPG ratio was calculated. RESULTS: According to the intragroup analysis, there were no statistically significant differences between the preoperative and postoperative levels of the RANKL/OPG ratio in any of the groups. Intergroup analyses showed that there were no statistically significant differences among the Ca(OH)2, Ca(OH)2 + ibuprofen, Ca(OH)2 + ciprofloxacin groups in terms of the percentage change in RANKL/OPG levels before and after treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Within the limitations of the present study, it can be concluded that addition of ibuprofen or ciprofloxacin to Ca(OH)2 paste does not provide any extra benefit in terms of lowering RANKL and OPG levels.

Effect of Periapical Diseases in Development of MRONJ in Immunocompromised Mouse Model.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to assess the effect of zoledronic acid on an immunocompromised mice model with periapical disease. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Thirty C57BL/6N mice were randomly divided into three groups (N = 10). All animals were subjected to bilateral ovariectomy (OVX) and then treated with saline (Veh), zoledronic acid (ZA), or concomitant zoledronic acid and dexamethasone (ZA/Dx) for 12 weeks. Eight weeks after starting drug administration, pulpal exposure was conducted on the lower left first molar. Four weeks after pulpal exposure, all mice were sacrificed and the mandibles were collected for radiological and histological examinations. RESULTS: Microcomputed tomography (µ-CT) examination showed significantly reduced periapical bone resorption in the ZA/Dx group and decreased periodontal bone resorption in both ZA and ZA/Dx groups. Higher bone mineral density (BMD) and strengthened microstructure were found in ZA and ZA/Dx groups. More empty lacunae were found in ZA and ZA/Dx groups. CONCLUSIONS: Apical periodontitis aggravates MRONJ under immunocompromised circumstances. Concurrent use of ZA and steroids inhibits alveolar bone resorption but increases the risk of developing MRONJ.

Role of Periapical Diseases in Medication-Related Osteonecrosis of the Jaws.

OBJECTIVE: The present study aimed to investigate the role of periapical diseases in inducing medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaws (MRONJ) using an ovariectomized (OVX) mice model. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Twenty C57BL/6N female mice were randomly assigned to two groups. All mice were subjected to bilateral ovariectomy and then treated with oncologic dose of zoledronic acid (ZA) or vehicle for twelve weeks. Eight weeks after commence of drug administration, a pulpal exposure (PE) operation was performed on the first right lower molar to induce periapical periodontitis; the contralateral non-PE tooth was used as control. All animals were sacrificed four weeks after pulpal exposure, and the mandibles were harvested for radiological and histomorphometrical analysis. RESULTS: Micro computed tomography (µ-CT) examination demonstrated that periapical diseases significantly increased alveolar bone resorption, and the resorption was greatly attenuated by ZA treatment. Concurrent ZA therapy significantly increased bone density and histological osteocyte necrosis in the presence of periapical lesions. CONCLUSION: ZA treatment reduced bone absorption resulting from periapical disease but increased the risk of developing MRONJ in the ovariectomized mouse model.

Antibiotic Use in 2016 by Members of the American Association of Endodontists: Report of a National Survey.

INTRODUCTION: This study surveyed the antibiotic prescribing practices of endodontists, and data were compared with previous surveys conducted in 1994 and 1999. METHODS: A 17-question survey was sent via www.surveymonkey.com to 3000 active members of the American Association of Endodontists for responses about antibiotic prescribing practices and demographics. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, chi-square tests, and linear regression analyses. RESULTS: Six hundred eighty-six participants (22.86%) completed the survey. The most frequently prescribed antibiotics were amoxicillin (60.71%) followed by penicillin V (30.43%) and clindamycin for patients with allergies (95.4%). Respondents reported prescribing antibiotics for irreversible pulpitis with mild symptoms (1.75%), irreversible pulpitis with moderate symptoms (6.41%), necrotic pulp with symptomatic apical periodontitis (43.59%), chronic apical abscess without (10.50%) or with symptoms (29.74%), acute apical abscess (95.92%), avulsion (70.26%), endodontic surgery (41.69%), retreatment (silver point [23.76%] or gutta-percha [15.60%]), postoperative pain after instrumentation or obturation (12.39%), and perforation repair (5.98%). The type of practice (solo/group) and geographic region (Southeast) were significant predictors of increased antibiotic prescribing; 36.89% of respondents reported prescribing antibiotics that are not necessary, most commonly because of patient expectations. CONCLUSIONS: Since 1999, there has been a significant shift from prescribing penicillin V to amoxicillin as endodontists' first choice of antibiotic and a significant increase in the use of clindamycin for penicillin-allergic patients. Antibiotics continue to be prescribed in clinical situations for which they are typically not indicated, most commonly because of patient expectations. Regional differences in antibiotic prescribing practices by endodontists exist in the United States.

Clinical and Radiographic Assessment of the Efficacy of a Collagen Membrane in Regenerative Endodontics: A Randomized, Controlled Clinical Trial.

INTRODUCTION: Recent reviews confirm a general lack of randomized, controlled clinical studies on the efficacy of regenerative endodontics in immature teeth affected by pulp and periapical diseases. Moreover, we have no evidence of the curative efficacy of collagen membranes used as scaffolds in regenerative endodontics. Here, we evaluated whether a Bio-Gide collagen membrane (Geistlich Pharma AG, Wolhusen, Switzerland) has efficacy in promoting dentin formation in regenerative endodontics. METHODS: Forty-three patients yielding a total of 46 nonvital immature teeth were divided randomly into 2 groups. Subsequent to chemomechanical preparation, regenerative endodontics with (the experimental group) and without (the control group) Bio-Gide were performed. All cases were followed up clinically and radiographically every 3 months for at least 6 months. Quantitative analyses using an imaging program yielded percentage changes in root dimensions based on a comparison between preoperative and recall radiographs. RESULTS: The results of 40 patients (43 teeth) were included in the final analyses. All patients from both groups showed clinical success with complete resolution of signs and symptoms. Radiographically, the thickness of the dentin wall at the middle third of the root was higher for the experimental group than the control group. However, other indicators were comparable between both groups. CONCLUSIONS: The use of the Bio-Gide collagen membrane promoted the development of the dentin wall in the middle third of the root in patients undergoing regenerative endodontic procedures. The convenience of operation and the assured positioning of the sealing material make the Bio-Gide collagen membrane especially suitable for handling wide root canals.

Prescription of antibiotics for pulpal and periapical pathology among dentists in southern Saudi Arabia.

OBJECTIVES: Few dental conditions require treatment with antibiotics, yet dentists account for 7% of antimicrobial prescribing. In light of the emerging global problem of antibiotic resistance, this fact is problematic. Little is known about the antibiotic prescribing practices of dentists in Saudi Arabia. This study therefore aimed to investigate the attitudes of dentists in Saudi Arabia towards the prescription of antibiotics for pulpal and periapical pathology. METHODS: This was a cross-sectional study involving an online questionnaire on antibiotic prescribing practices. A total of 195 dentists in three areas of southern Saudi Arabia (Najran, Gizan and Asser) completed the survey. RESULTS: No significant differences in prescribing habits were found among respondents according to age, sex, level of education or time in endodontic practice. The percentage of respondents who reported that they would prescribe antibiotics for five endodontic conditions not requiring antibiotic treatment ranged from 8.1% to 28.1%. Most respondents (81.9%) would correctly prescribe antibiotics for a necrotic pulp with acute apical periodontitis and swelling; this result was consistent with previous studies. Reported antibiotic usage among the surveyed dentists was quite high. CONCLUSIONS: Relatively high antibiotic use suggests a need to educate both dentists and patients about restricting the use of antibiotics to cases of severe infection and when indicated. More educational initiatives to rationalise the use of antibiotics in dental practice are needed to avoid further contributing to antibiotic resistance.

Interleukin-1 and estrogen protect against disseminating dentoalveolar infections.

Dentoalveolar bacterial infections cause localized tissue and bone destruction, but usually remain well-localized within teeth in immunocompetent hosts. However, in certain cases these infections may invade head and neck tissues, resulting in orofacial abscesses, cellulitis and sepsis, with resultant high morbidity and even mortality. In the present studies, we developed a novel model of spreading dentoalveolar infections in mice by treatment with neutralizing antibodies against both interleukin-1α (IL-1α) and IL-1ß. Surprisingly male but not female mice given anti-IL-1 antibodies developed orofacial abscesses, weight loss, splenomegaly and sepsis. Female mice developed abscesses and sepsis comparable to males following ovariectomy (OVX), which was reversed by estrogen supplementation. Anti-IL-1 blockade inhibited IL-12, interferon γ (IFNγ) and IL-6 but not IL-10 expression in infrabony lesions, suggestive of a local anti-inflammatory response. There was greater infiltration of neutrophils and other inflammatory cells into lesions in anti-IL-1-treated animals; however, blood leukocytes had reduced bacterial phagocytic and killing activity ex vivo. Estrogen directly stimulated IL-1 production by macrophages, suggesting that the resistance of females to disseminating dentoalveolar infections may be due to their heightened pro-inflammatory responses following bacterial challenge, leading to enhanced localization of these infections.

Design of novel injectable in-situ forming scaffolds for non-surgical treatment of periapical lesions: In-vitro and in-vivo evaluation.

Periapical lesions are considered one of the common pathological conditions affecting alveolar bone. The primary focus of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of formulating an injectable in-situ forming scaffold-loaded with risedronate (bone resorption inhibitor) and with lornoxicam (anti-inflammatory drug) for the non-surgical treatment of periapical lesions. The scaffolds were prepared using solvent-induced phase inversion technique. Two insoluble copolymers were investigated namely; PLGA (ester-terminal) and PLGA-A (acid-terminal), additionally, SAIB was added as a high viscosity water-insoluble carrier. The addition of porogenic agents like hydrolyzed collagen was also investigated. The prepared scaffolds were characterized by analyzing their in-vitro release, DSC and rheological properties, besides their morphological properties. The results showed that the scaffolds prepared using 30% (w/v) PLGA or combined PLGA: SAIB (1:1, w/w) with total polymer concentration of 30% (w/v) possessed the most sustained drug release profile. Selected scaffolds were tested for their therapeutic effect to study the effect of porogenic agent, anti-inflammatory drug and risedronate in periapical lesions induced in dogs' teeth. Results declared that the selected scaffolds succeeded in improving the inflammation and enhancing the formation of new bony regions confirming the success of the prepared scaffolds as an innovative approach in the treatment of bone defects.

Hemostatic Agents in Periapical Surgery: A Randomized Study of Gauze Impregnated in Epinephrine versus Aluminum Chloride.

INTRODUCTION: Adequate bleeding control is essential for the success of periapical surgery. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of 2 hemostatic agents on the outcome of periapical surgery and their relationship with patient and teeth parameters. METHODS: A prospective study was designed with 2 randomized parallel groups, depending on the hemostatic agent used: gauze impregnated in epinephrine (epinephrine group) and aluminum chloride (aluminum chloride group). The analysis of the hemorrhage control was judged before and after the application of the hemostatic agents by the surgeon, and 2 examiners independently recorded it as adequate (complete hemorrhage control) or inadequate (incomplete hemorrhage control). RESULTS: Ninety-nine patients with a periradicular lesion were enrolled in this study and divided into 2 groups: gauze impregnated in epinephrine in 48 patients (epinephrine group) or aluminum chloride in 51 (aluminum chloride group). In epinephrine group adequate hemostasis was achieved in 25 cases, and in aluminum chloride group it was achieved in 37 cases (P < .05). CONCLUSIONS: The outcome was better in the aluminum chloride group than in the gauze impregnated in epinephrine group.

A Randomized Trial Using 3Mixtatin Compared to MTA in Primary Molars with Inflammatory Root Resorption: A Novel Endodontic Biomaterial.

OBJECTIVES: Novel methods for preserving primary teeth can help to maintain their developmental, esthetic, and functional capabilities. The aim of this study was to assess the success of the repair of bony defects, caused by pre-treatment perforations, with a mixture of three antibiotics combined with simvastatin (3Mixtatin) compared to MTA in hopeless primary molars. STUDY DESIGN: In this randomized clinical trial, 80 teeth from 65 healthy children aged 3-6 years with interradicular or periapical root resorption and/or perforation in primary molars were treated either with 3Mixtatin or MTA before conventional pulpectomy and restoration. The subjects were followed up clinically and radiographically for 4, 6, 12 and 24 months after pulp treatment to evaluate and compare the healing process. The data were compared using chi-square test at a significance level of 0.05. RESULTS: By the end of 24 months in 3Mixtatin group, 31 (96.8%) teeth revealed no clinical signs or symptoms with arrested resorption progress in radiographs. In MTA group, clinical signs and symptoms including pain, mobility and sinus tract were observed in 18 (48.6%) teeth with cessation of root/interradicular radiolucency in 7 (18.9%) teeth without bone repair. CONCLUSIONS: Radiographic and clinical healing occurred more successfully following 3Mixtatin treatment compared to treatment with MTA, it may lead to a paradigm shift in the pulpal treatment of primary teeth in the future.

Periimplantitis apical - presentación de serie de 11 casos clínicos / Apical peri-implantitis: a presentation of a series of 11 clinical cases

Objetivos. Evaluar el protocolo quirúrgico y discutir los posibles factores predisponentes de la periimplantitis apical. Material y método. En el presente trabajo, se planteó un estudio descriptivo retrospectivo analizando una serie de 11 casos clínicos de periimplantitis apical diagnosticados y tratados en el ámbito del Hospital de La Princesa (Madrid) y la Clínica Universidad de Navarra (Pamplona) entre 2002 y 2013. Los pacientes sintomáticos fueron tratados mediante legrado de la zona con o sin relleno. Resultados. Se analizaron un número total de 11 casos de periimplantitis apical (4 asintomáticos y 7 con síntomas). La clínica observada fue parecida a la enfermedad dentaria periapical y el tiempo transcurrido hasta el diagnóstico fue variable, inferior a los 3 años. Se observó resolución completa del problema en 6 de los 7 casos tratados con legrado de la zona periapical del implante. En el caso restante se procedió a la explantación del implante afecto. En los casos asintomáticos no se realizó ningún tipo de tratamiento quirúrgico, presentando una tendencia autolimitada. Conclusión. La periimplantitis apical es una enfermedad que puede complicar el tratamiento implantológico. La cirugía conservadora ha tenido resultados satisfactorios en los casos sintomáticos (AU)

Objectives. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the surgical protocol and discuss possible predisposing factors of apical peri-implantitis. Material and methods. A retrospective study was performed by analyzing a series of cases involving 11 patients, all of whom where diagnosed with, and treated for, apical peri-implantitis at La Princesa Hospital in Madrid and at Navarre University Clinic in Pamplona, Spain, between 2002 and 2013. Symptomatic patients were treated with curettage of the area, which was, in some cases, combined with bone regeneration techniques. Results. A total of 11 cases of apical periimplantitis were included (4 asymptomatic and 7 symptomatic). The symptoms observed were similar to dental periapical pathology, and the period of time elapsed until the patients were diagnosed with API was variable, but was less than 3 years. Complete resolution of the pathology was observed in 6 of the 7 patients treated with curettage of the periapical implant area. In the remaining case the affected implant was removed. No surgical treatment was used in asymptomatic cases, as they were self-limiting. Conclusion. Apical periimplantitis is a condition which may complicate the dental implant treatment. Conservative surgical treatment has shown satisfactory results in symptomatic patients (AU)

Injectable nanoamorphous calcium phosphate based in situ gel systems for the treatment of periapical lesions.

Nonsurgical local treatment of a periapical lesion arising from trauma or bacterial infection is a promising innovative approach. The present study investigated the feasibility of developing injectable amorphous calcium phosphate nanoparticles (ACP NPs) and ACP NPs loaded with an anti-inflammatory drug; ibuprofen (IBU-ACP NPs) in the form of thermoreversible in situ gels to treat periapical lesions with the stimulation of bone formation. NPs were produced by a spray-drying technique. Different formulations of Poloxamer 407 were incorporated with/without the produced NPs to form injectable gels. A drug release study was carried out. A 3 month in vivo test on a dog model also was assessed. Results showed successful incorporation of the drug into the NPs of CP during spray drying. The particles had mean diameters varying from 100 to 200 nm with a narrow distribution. A drug release study demonstrated controlled IBU release from IBU-ACP NPs at a pH of 7.4 over 24 h. The gelation temperature of the injectable in situ gels based on Poloxamer 407 was measured to be 30 °C. After 3 months of implantation in dogs, the results clearly demonstrated that the inclusion of ACP NPs loaded with IBU showed high degrees of periapical bone healing and cementum layer deposition around the apical root tip.

Enterococcus faecalis and Candida albicans in the dental root canal and periapical infections.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the present study was to examine the prevalence of Enterococcus faecalis and Candida albicans in endodontic infections. METHODS: Samples for microbiological examination were collected from 32 patients with deep dental caries, infected dental root canal, or periapical infection. RESULTS: Cultivation of the dental samples yielded four strains of Enterococcus faecalis (12.5 %), and three strains of Candida albicans (9.4 %). All Enterococcus faecalis isolates were susceptible to ampicillin, one isolate was resistant to tetracycline, two to erythromycin and azithromycin (additional 2 had intermediate susceptibility), and one strain had intermediate susceptibility to ciprofloxacin and moxifloxacin. CONCLUSION: We conclude that Enterococcus faecalis and Candida albicans can participate in the dental root canal and periapical infections, and the use of effective irrigant solutions and intracanal medicaments active against these microbes is important in order to prevent endodontic therapy failures. Unexpected was the isolation of C. albicans from a nine-year-old child with periodontitis apicalis. This finding must draw attention to the possibility that even at such a young age, this microorganism could be a potential etiological agent in endodontic infections (Tab. 2, Ref. 34). Text in PDF www.elis.sk.

An assessment of the prescribing skills of undergraduate dental students in malaysia.

Most dental schools lack a module on prescription writing in pharmacology. This study assessed the prescription writing skills of a group of Malaysian dental students at the end of their undergraduate training program. A quantitative study of a two-group posttest experiment was designed, and thirty-seven fifth-year (final-year) dental students were divided into two groups (A [n=18] and B [n=19]). Group A received a didactic lecture on how to write a complete prescription, while Group B served as a control group. For prescription writing, three standardized dental scenarios with a diagnosis of irreversible pulpitis associated with a child and a pregnant woman and periapical pulpitis for an adult man were administered. Thus, a total of 111 prescriptions (Group A [n=54] and Group B [n=57]) were collected. Twelve elements in each prescription were assessed by frequency and a chi-square test. Improvements in eight out of the twelve elements were observed in prescriptions written by students in Group A. The significantly improved elements were provision of the symbol R(x) (39.8 percent) (p<0.001), inclusion of the prescriber's signature (75.3 percent) (p<0.001), inclusion of the date with the prescriber's signature (54.6 percent) (p<0.001), and inclusion of the prescriber's registration (30.5 percent) (p<0.001). Overall, Group A gained almost a 50 percent improvement in writing complete prescriptions due to the intervening lecture. It appeared a traditional lecture led to the more accurate writing of a complete prescription. It was suggested that a module on prescription writing be added to the school's pharmacology curriculum, so that dental graduates will be competent in prescription writing for the sake of their patients' health.

Periapical actinomycosis.

Actinomycosis is a rare chronic infection caused by species of Actinomyces and characterised by abscess formation, tissue fibrosis, suppurative lesions and fistulas with purulent discharge containing sulphur granules. Owing to its multiform manners of presentation and non-specificity from its clinical features, it has been considered as a challenging diagnosis. Periapical actinomycosis is one of the rarest forms of actinomycosis occurring in the maxillofacial region. In its occurrence it presents in the form of persistent and recurrent draining fistula in the periapical region. We report a case of periapical actinomycosis occurred in endodontically treated teeth and accidentally found to be actinomycosis during histopatological examination. An insight towards the portal of entry of the organisms into the periapical region is also discussed. The practice of sending even a tiny bit of tissues to histopathology obtained from periapical surgery will very well demonstrate this disease and help in rapid resolution through appropriate antibiotic therapy.

Use of triple antibiotic paste in the treatment of large periradicular lesions.

Microorganisms are the possible source of endodontic lesions. The polymicrobial infection makes the sterilization of the root canal difficult. The following case report describes the non-surgical endodontic treatment of teeth with a large periradicular lesion. First, an intracanal dressing of calcium hydroxide was given. Since the symptoms did not subside, the treatment protocol was changed. A triple antibiotic paste was used instead for 3 months. On follow up, teeth were clinically asymptomatic and radiographically showed healing of the periradicular lesion. The result of the case show that when most commonly-used medicaments fail in eliminating the symptoms, then a triple antibiotic paste (metronidazole, ciprofloxacin, and minocycline) can be used clinically in the treatment of teeth with large periradicular lesions.